.
Men’s decathlon
The vast majority of international and top level men’s decathlons are divided in to a two-day competition, with the track and field events held in the order below. Traditionally, all decathletes who finished the event do a round of honour together after the competition, rather than just the winner or medalling athletes.
|
Day 1 · Shot put |
Day 2 |
Women’s heptathlon is the combined event for women contested in the Athletics program of the Olympics and in the IAAF World Championships in Athletics. The IAAF World Combined Events Challenge determines a yearly women’s heptathlon champion. The women’s outdoor heptathlon consists of the following events, with the first four contested on the first day, and the remaining three on day two:
The heptathlon has been contested by female athletes since the early 1980s, when it replaced the pentathlon as the primary women’s combined event contest (the javelin throw and 800 m were added).[citation needed] It was first contested at the Olympic level in the 1984 Summer Olympics. In recent years some women’s decathlon competitions have been conducted, consisting of the same events as the men’s competition in a slightly different order, and the IAAF has begun keeping records for it, but the heptathlon remains the championship-level combined event for women. Jessica Ennis-Hill, representing Great Britain, is the 2012 Olympic Gold Medallist and the current World Champion
1896 – Athens, Greece
1900 – Paris, France
1904 – St. Louis, United States
1908 – London, United Kingdom
1912 – Stockholm, Sweden
1916 – Scheduled for Berlin, Germany*
1920 – Antwerp, Belgium
1924 – Paris, France
1928 – Amsterdam, Netherlands
1932 – Los Angeles, United States
1936 – Berlin, Germany
1940 – Scheduled for Tokyo, Japan*
1944 – Scheduled for London, United Kingdom* 1948 – London, United Kingdom
1952 – Helsinki, Finland
1956 – Melbourne, Australia
1960 – Rome, Italy
1964 – Tokyo, Japan
1968 – Mexico City, Mexico
1972 – Munich, West Germany (now Germany)
1976 – Montreal, Canada
1980 – Moscow, U.S.S.R.
(now Russia)
1984 – Los Angeles, United States
1988 – Seoul, South Korea
1992 – Barcelona, Spain
1996 – Atlanta, United States
2000 – Sydney, Australia
2004 – Athens, Greece
2008 – Beijing, China
2012 – London, United Kingdom
2016 – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2020 – Tokyo, Japan
2024 – To Be Determined 15 September 2017
Winter Olympic Games Sites
1924 – Chamonix, France
1928 – St. Moritz, Switzerland
1932 – Lake Placid, N.Y., United States
1936 – Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
1940 – Scheduled for Sapporo, Japan*
1944 – Scheduled for Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy*
1948 – St. Moritz, Switzerland
1952 – Oslo, Norway
1956 – Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy
1960 – Squaw Valley, California, United States
1964 – Innsbruck, Austria
1968 – Grenoble, France
1972 – Sapporo, Japan
1976 – Innsbruck, Austria
1980 – Lake Placid, New York, United States
1984 – Sarajevo, Yugoslavia (now Bosnia and Herzegovina)
1988 – Calgary, Alberta, Canada
1992 – Albertville, France**
1994 – Lillehammer, Norway**
1998 – Nagano, Japan
2002 – Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
2006 – Torino (Turin), Italy
2010 – Vancouver, Canada
2014 – Sochi, Russia
2018 – Pyeongchang, South Korea
2022 – Beijing, China
DISCUS THROWING RULES.
Warm-Up Rules
- Warm-ups are only permitted before the event begins. Once the actual event starts, all warm-ups cease, regardless of the throwing order. Throwing order is typically determined by random draw order and is under supervision of a tournament judge. Any discus throws done during warm-up are not measured and do not count for the competition.
Throwing Rules
- During the prelims, each contestant is allowed three throws. Depending on the competition, there may be a time limit (such as 1 minute) within which the contestant must make a throw upon entering the ring. The top contestants advance from the prelims to the finals, where they will be given three more throws.
Measuring Rules
- The assistant takes the zero-end of the tape out to the landing site while the official reads the measurement at the throwing circle. The distance is measured from the exact landing spot to the closest inner edge of the throwing circle, measuring in a straight line. A discus that lands on the line of the sector is called a foul. A flag or other such marker is placed at the site of the competitor’s best throw.
Rules for Fouls
- A foul throw may be called if the contestant throws the disc with two hands. A discus landing on or outside a designated sector can result in a foul. Contestants may not step outside the circle before their discus lands. Walking out the front half of the circle after the discus has landed also constitutes a foul.
Rules/technique for shot put:
Competitors take their throw from inside a (7 feet) in diameter, with a toe board approximately 4″ high at the front of the circle. The shot must land within an angle of approximately 30 degrees. The athlete must rest the shot in between the neck and shoulder and keep it tight to the neck while throwing. At the end of the throw, the thrower must push the throwing arm straight with the thumb pointing down; if the thrower does not push the ball out and throws it like a baseball, the thrower may receive injury.. The shot putters must enter and leave the circle from the rear half of the circle, or a foul is called. Other fouls include letting some article of clothing touch the top of the toeboard or outside the circle, and/or the shot falling outside of the borders to the left and the right. The distance thrown is measured from the front of the circle to where the shot lands at its nearest disturbance of the soil.
Note that in order to have the thumb pointing down through the throwing motion, the elbow must remain away from the body.
Shot Put Technique:
- Holding the shot put
The shot is held at the base of the fingers not the palm
The fingers are slightly spread apart with the thumb for support. The hand will be bent back in the cocked position when holding the shot. It looks like you are carrying a pizza.
- Neck placement
Raise the shot above your head
Lower the shot straight down until it is under your jaw
Push the shot into your neck
Lift your elbow parallel to the floor. Don’t squeeze your elbow towards your back
Check to see that your thumb is pointing down towards your clavicle
The palm should be pointing towards the throwing direction
- Delivery of the Shot Put
Eyes to the ceiling
Punch the shot away from the neck
Keep the elbow high at all times. Lowering the elbow can cause the shot to be thrown like a baseball and could result in an injury
Finish the punch with a flip of the wrist
The left side of the body will be stopped and locked to help form the block
The left arm will be tucked close to the side of the body
Rules and Regulations for the Javelin Throw
Last Updated: Jun 20, 2015 | By Michele M. Howard
Michele M. Howard
Michele M. Howard began writing professionally in 2009, producing sports, fitness, home improvement and gardening articles for various websites. In addition to writing, Howard is a United States Professional Tennis Association tennis instructor and a professional racket stringer. Howard holds a Bachelor of Arts in mathematics from Southern Connecticut State University.
An athlete throwing a javelin. Photo Credit moodboard/moodboard/Getty Images
The javelin throw is the field event where an athlete runs down a narrow runway then tosses a long, spear-like object as far as he can into a marked field area. The layout of the runway, the specs for the javelin and how it’s thrown are all governed by the rules and regulations of the sport.
Runway Specs
The runway must be at least 33 yards and as much as 37 yards long. Two white parallel lines, slightly wider than 4 feet apart, mark the runway. At the end of the runway is an arch-shaped foul line with a radius of about 9 feet. The arc, which is made of wood or some other type of durable material, must be flush with the ground and painted white. The thrower can’t touch any of these lines, leave the runway, or the area outside of these lines, before the javelin lands.
Equipment Specs
The javelin head is made of metal, tapers to a point and is attached to either a hollow or solid shaft. The shaft must have a uniform, smooth surface with no ridges or grooves. The javelin can’t have any attachments that can change its center of gravity or throwing characteristics. The cord grip must have a constant thickness and can’t be more than .31 inches larger than the diameter of the shaft. The javelin used by men must be between 102 and 106 inches long with a minimum weight of 28 ounces. For women, the length is about 87 to 91 inches with a minimum weight of 21 ounces.
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Throwing Technique
Proper technique requires the athlete to hold the javelin with only one hand on the cord grip. Gloves aren’t allowed, and tape on the fingers is permitted only if its to cover an open wound. The rules do, however, allow athletes to chalk their hands. The javelin must be thrown with an over-the-shoulder motion. The competitor can’t turn his back to the throwing area until the javelin is airborne.
The javelin must land within the “sector” to register a score. This fan-shaped area extends out from the ends of the arch-shaped foul line. The javelin can’t land on the lines marking the sides of the sector. The metal head of the javelin has to hit the ground first or the throw is a foul.
Equipment
The hammer is a three-part device that includes a metal ball, called the “head,” attached to a steel wire not longer than 121.5 centimeters with a grip or “handle” on the end. The hammer is the only throwing competition in which throwers may wear gloves.
Men throw a 7.26-kilogram ball, with a diameter ranging between 110-130 millimeters, while women throw a 4-kilogram version with a diameter of 95-100 millimeters.
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Throwing area
The hammer is thrown from a circle with a 2.135-meter diameter. Competitors may touch the inside of the circle’s rim but cannot touch the top of the rim during the throw. The thrower cannot touch the ground outside the throwing circle during an attempt, nor can he/she leave the circle until the hammer hits the ground.
The circle lies within an enclosure to ensure the safety of the bystanders. The competition
Twelve competitors qualify for the Olympic hammer throw final. In the 2004 Games, 35 men and 48 women participated in their respective qualification rounds prior to the final. The results from the qualification rounds do not carry over into the final.
As in all throwing events, the 12 finalists have three attempts apiece, then the top eight competitors receive three more attempts. The longest single throw during the final wins
First modern Olympic Games
On April 6, 1896, the Olympic Games, a long-lost tradition of ancient Greece, are reborn in Athens 1,500 years after being banned by Roman Emperor Theodosius I. At the opening of the Athens Games, King Georgios I of Greece and a crowd of 60,000 spectators welcomed athletes from 13 nations to the international competition.
The first recorded Olympic Games were held at Olympia in the Greek city-state of Elis in 776 B.C., but it is generally accepted that the Olympics were at least 500 years old at that time. The ancient Olympics, held every four years, occurred during a religious festival honoring the Greek god Zeus. In the eighth century B.C., contestants came from a dozen or more Greek cities, and by the fifth century B.C. from as many as 100 cities from throughout the Greek empire. Initially, Olympic competition was limited to foot races, but later a number of other events were added, including wrestling, boxing, horse and chariot racing, and military competitions. The pentathlon, introduced in 708 B.C., consisted of a foot race, the long jump, discus and javelin throws, and wrestling. With the rise of Rome, the Olympics declined, and in 393 A.D. the Roman Emperor Theodosius I, a Christian, abolished the Games as part of his efforts to suppress paganism in the Roman Empire.
With the Renaissance, Europe began a long fascination with ancient Greek culture, and in the 18th and 19th centuries some nations staged informal sporting and folkloric festivals bearing the name “Olympic Games.” However, it was not until 1892 that a young French baron, Pierre de Coubertin, seriously proposed reviving the Olympics as a major international competition that would occur every four years. At a conference on international sport in Paris in June 1894, Coubertin again raised the idea, and the 79 delegates from nine countries unanimously approved his proposal. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) was formed, and the first Games were planned for 1896 in Athens, the capital of Greece.
In Athens, 280 participants from 13 nations competed in 43 events, covering track-and-field, swimming, gymnastics, cycling, wrestling, weightlifting, fencing, shooting, and tennis. All the competitors were men, and a few of the entrants were tourists who stumbled upon the Games and were allowed to sign up. The track-and-field events were held at the Panathenaic Stadium, which was originally built in 330 B.C. and restored for the 1896 Games. Americans won nine out of 12 of these events. The 1896 Olympics also featured the first marathon competition, which followed the 25-mile route run by a Greek soldier who brought news of a victory over the Persians from Marathon to Athens in 490 B.C. In 1924, the marathon was standardized at 26 miles and 385 yards. Appropriately, a Greek, Spyridon Louis, won the first marathon at the 1896 Athens Games.
Pierre de Coubertin became IOC president in 1896 and guided the Olympic Games through its difficult early years, when it lacked much popular support and was overshadowed by world’s fairs. In 1924, the first truly successful Olympic Games were held in Paris, involving more than 3,000 athletes, including more than 100 women, from 44 nations. The first Winter Olympic Games were also held that year. In 1925, Coubertin retired. The Olympic Games have come to be regarded as the foremost international sports competition. At the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, more than 10,000 athletes from 200 countries competed, including nearly 4,000 women. In 2004, the Summer Olympics returned to Athens, with more than 11,000 athletes competing from 202 countries. In a proud moment for Greeks and an exciting one for spectators, the shotput competition was held at the site of the classical Games in Olympia.
Each season FIFA publishes an extensive ‘Laws of the Game’ guide which describes the laws of soccer. Here is an overview of the 17 laws of the game. Click on the subject headings to read about the laws in greater detail.
There are very few fixed dimensions for soccer fields, even at the highest level. FIFA only stipulates that for professional 11-versus-11 competition, the length must be between 100 yards and 130 yards and the width between 50 and 100 yards.
The circumference of a soccer ball must not be more than 28 inches (70 centimeters) and not less than 27 ins (68 cm).
The size 5 ball, used by ages 12 and above, is spherical and made of leather or some other suitable material.
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It must not weigh more than 16 ounces (450 grams) and not less than 14 oz (410 g) at the start of a match.
The ball must be of a pressure equal to 0.6 – 1.1 atmosphere (600 – 1,000 g/cm2) at sea level (8.5 Ibs/sq in – 15.6 Ibs/sq in).
A match is played by two teams, with each allowed no more than 11 players on the field at any one time, one of whom is a goalkeeper. A match may not start if either team has fewer than seven players.
The FIFA ‘Laws of the Game’ state that players are not allowed to use equipment or wear anything that is dangerous to himself or any other player (including any kind of jewellery).
A player’s basic equipment consists of a jersey or shirt with sleeves, shorts, stockings, shinpads and footwear.
The two teams must wear colors that distinguish themselves from the opponent, referee and assistant referees.
The referee has the full authority to enforce the laws of the game and his decision is final.
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He controls the match in cooperation with the assistant referees, and where applicable, the fourth official. The referee ensures that the ball and players’ equipment meets the requirements, acts as timekeeper and stops play for infringement of the laws among several other duties.
In professional soccer there are two assistant referees whose job it is to call offsides and throw-ins, and help the referee make decisions. Carrying a flag to signal their observations, assistant referees, or linesmen as they are commonly known, must monitor the sidelines and goal lines and flag if the ball goes out of play, signaling which team the goal kick or throw-in should be awarded to.
Law 7: The Duration of the Match
Matches consist of two 45 minute halves, unless the two teams and referee agree otherwise before the start of play. The half-time interval must not exceed 15 minutes, and can only be altered upon consent of the referee. A referee may play added time because of substitutions, assessment of injuries, removal of injured players from the field of play, time wasting and any other cause. An abandoned match is replayed unless the competition rules state otherwise.
Law 8: The Start and Restart of Play
Kick-off is the way of starting or restarting play:
– To begin a match
– If a goal has been scored
– To begin the second half
– To begin a period of extra-time.
Law 9: The Ball in and out of Play
The ball is out of play when:
– It has wholly crossed the goalline or touchline
– Play has been stopped by the referee.
The ball is in play at all other times, including when:
-It rebounds off a goalpost, crossbar or corner flag and stays on the field.
-When it hits a referee or assistant referee when they are on the field.
Law 10: The Method of Scoring
Goal Scored:
A goal is scored when the whole of the ball crosses the whole of the goalline between the posts and crossbar, provided there is no infringement such as offside, a foul or handball.
The team that scores the most goals wins the match. If the number of goals scored between the two sides is equal at the end of a match, it is a draw.
When competition rules require that there must be a winner, the outcome will be decided by either:
– Extra-time
– Penalty kicks.
The law states that if a player is in an offside position when the ball is played to him or touched by a teammate, he may not become actively involved in the play.
A player is in an offside position if he is closer to the goal line than both the ball and the second-to-last defender, but only if he is in the opposition half of the field.
Click the heading for a summary of the different infractions that will lead the referee to blow the whistle, stop play, and possibly take disciplinary action.
Free kicks are either direct or indirect, and the ball must be stationary when the kick is taken. The kicker must not touch the ball again until it has touched another player.
Law 14 : The Penalty Kick
Feinting in the run up to taking a penalty kick to confuse the goalkeeper is permitted. However, feinting to kick the ball once the player has completed his run up is considered an act of unsporting behavior for which the player must be cautioned by the referee.
Preparing for the penalty kick
The referee must confirm the following before the kick is taken:
– the kicker is identified
– the ball is placed properly on the penalty mark
– the goalkeeper is on the goal line between the posts and facing the kicker
All other players on the field are:
– Outside the penalty area – Outside the penalty arc
– Behind the ball.
Laws 15, 16 & 17: Throw Ins, Goal Kicks, and Corner Kicks
When the ball goes out of play over the touchline, a throw in will be taken by a player from the team who did not touch the ball last. When the whole of the ball goes over the goalline, a goal kick or corner is awarded, depending on which team touched the ball last. If the defending team touched it, a corner is awarded to the opposition. If the attacking team had the last touch, a goal kick is awarded.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RULE ONE – THE GAME ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Art. 1 Definitions ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5
RULE TWO – COURT AND EQUIPMENT …………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Art. 2 Court …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
Art. 3 Equipment ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
RULE THREE – TEAMS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
Art. 4 Teams ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11
Art. 5 Players: Injury…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Art. 6 Captain: Duties and powers……………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Art. 7 Coaches: Duties and powers …………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
RULE FOUR – PLAYING REGULATIONS ……………………………………………………………………………………. 15
Art. 8 Playing time, tied score and extra periods ………………………………………………………………… 15
Art. 9 Beginning and end of a period or the game ………………………………………………………………. 15
Art. 10 Status of the ball ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16
Art. 11 Location of a player and an official ……………………………………………………………………………. 17
Art. 12 Jump ball and alternating possession ……………………………………………………………………….. 17
Art. 13 How the ball is played ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 19
Art. 14 Control of the ball ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
Art. 15 Player in the act of shooting ………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
Art. 16 Goal: When made and its value …………………………………………………………………………………. 20
Art. 17 Throw-in …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
Art. 18 Time-out …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
Art. 19 Substitution ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
Art. 20 Game lost by forfeit ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 25
Art. 21 Game lost by default ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
RULE FIVE – VIOLATIONS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
Art. 22 Violations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
Art. 23 Player out-of-bounds and ball out-of-bounds ……………………………………………………………. 27
Art. 24 Dribbling …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
Art. 25 Travelling ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
Art. 26 3 seconds …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
Art. 27 Closely guarded player ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2 Art 28 8 seconds …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 30
Art. 29 24 seconds …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
Art. 30 Ball returned to the backcourt …………………………………………………………………………………… 32
Art. 31 Goaltending and Interference ……………………………………………………………………………………. 32
RULE SIX – FOULS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 34
Art. 32 Fouls …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
Art. 33 Contact: General principles ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 34
Art. 34 Personal foul………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
Art. 35 Double foul …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
Art. 36 Technical foul …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40
Art. 37 Unsportsmanlike foul …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42
Art. 38 Disqualifying foul ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Art. 39 Fighting ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
RULE SEVEN – GENERAL PROVISIONS ……………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 40 5 fouls by a player ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 41 Team fouls: Penalty ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 42 Special situations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 43 Free throws ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46
Art. 44 Correctable errors ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 48
RULE EIGHT – OFFICIALS, TABLE OFFICIALS, COMMISSIONER: DUTIES AND POWERS ……….. 50
Art. 45 Officials, table officials and commissioner ………………………………………………………………… 50
Art. 46 Referee: Duties and powers ………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
Art. 47 Officials: Duties and powers………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
Art. 48 Scorer and assistant scorer: Duties ………………………………………………………………………….. 52
Art. 49 Timer: Duties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 53
Art. 50 Shot clock operator: Duties ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
A – OFFICIALS’ SIGNALS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
B – THE SCORESHEET ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64
C – PROTEST PROCEDURE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71
D – CLASSIFICATION OF TEAMS ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
E – MEDIA TIME-OUTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
INDEX TO THE RULES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
79 Art. 38 Disqualifying foul ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42
Art. 39 Fighting ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 43
RULE SEVEN – GENERAL PROVISIONS ……………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 40 5 fouls by a player ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 41 Team fouls: Penalty ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 42 Special situations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Art. 43 Free throws ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46
Art. 44 Correctable errors ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 48
RULE EIGHT – OFFICIALS, TABLE OFFICIALS, COMMISSIONER: DUTIES AND POWERS ……….. 50
Art. 45 Officials, table officials and commissioner ………………………………………………………………… 50
Art. 46 Referee: Duties and powers ………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
Art. 47 Officials: Duties and powers………………………………………………………………………………………. 51
Art. 48 Scorer and assistant scorer: Duties ………………………………………………………………………….. 52
Art. 49 Timer: Duties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 53
Art. 50 Shot clock operator: Duties ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 54
A – OFFICIALS’ SIGNALS ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
B – THE SCORESHEET ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64
C – PROTEST PROCEDURE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71
D – CLASSIFICATION OF TEAMS ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
E – MEDIA TIME-OUTS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 77
INDEX TO THE RULES ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
TABLE OF DIAGRAMS
Diagram 1 Full size playing court …………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
Diagram 2 Restricted area …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8
Diagram 3 2-point/3-point field goal area ……………………………………………………………………………. 9
Diagram 4 Scorer’s table and substitution chairs ……………………………………………………………….. 9
Diagram 5 Cylinder principle ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
Diagram 6 Players’ positions during free throws ………………………………………………………………. 47
Diagram 7 Officials’ signals ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 63
Diagram 8 Scoresheet ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 64
Diagram 9 Top of the scoresheet ………………………………………………………………………………………. 65
Diagram 10 Teams on the scoresheet …………………………………………………………………………………. 66
Diagram 11 Running score…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 69
Diagram 12 Summing up ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70
Diagram 13 Bottom of the scoresheet …………………………………………………………………………………. 70
Throughout the Official Basketball Rules, all references made to a player, coach, official, etc. in the male gender also apply to the female gender. It must be understood that this is done for practical reasons only.
RULE ONE – THE GAME
Art. 1 Definitions
1.1. Basketball game
Basketball is played by 2 teams of 5 players each. The aim of each team is to score in the opponents’ basket and to prevent the other team from scoring.
The game is controlled by the officials, table officials and a commissioner, if present.
1.2. Basket: opponents’/own
The basket that is attacked by a team is the opponents’ basket and the basket which is defended by a team is their own basket.
1.3. Winner of a game
The team that has scored the greater number of points at the end of playing time shall be the winner.
RULE TWO – COURT AND EQUIPMENT
Art. 2 Court
2.1. Playing court
The playing court shall have a flat, hard surface free from obstructions (Diagram 1) with dimensions of 28 m in length by 15 m in width measured from the inner edge of the boundary line.
2.2. Backcourt
A team’s backcourt consists of its team’s own basket, the inbounds part of the backboard and that part of the playing court limited by the endline behind their own basket, the sidelines and the centre line.
2.3. Frontcourt
A team’s frontcourt consists of the opponents’ basket, the inbounds part of the backboard and that part of the playing court limited by the endline behind the opponents’ basket, the sidelines and the inner edge of the centre line nearest to the opponents’ basket.
2.4. Lines
All lines shall be drawn in white colour, 5 cm in width and clearly visible.
2.4.1. Boundary line
The playing court shall be limited by the boundary line, consisting of the endlines and the sidelines. These lines are not part of the playing court.
Any obstruction including seated team bench personnel shall be at least 2 m from the playing court.
2.4.2. Centre line, centre circle and free-throw semi-circles
The centre line shall be marked parallel to the endlines from the mid-point of the sidelines. It shall extend 0.15 m beyond each sideline. The centre line is part of the backcourt.
The centre circle shall be marked in the centre of the playing court and have a radius of 1.80 m measured to the outer edge of the circumference. If the inside of the centre circle is painted, it must be the same colour as the restricted areas.
The free-throw semi-circles shall be marked on the playing court with a radius of 1.80 m measured to the outer edge of the circumference and with their centres at the mid-point of the free-throw lines (Diagram 2).
2.4.3. Free-throw lines, restricted areas and free-throw rebound places
The free-throw line shall be drawn parallel to each endline. It shall have its furthest edge 5.80 m from the inner edge of the endline and shall be 3.60 m long. Its mid-point shall lie on the imaginary line joining the mid-point of the 2 endlines.
The restricted areas shall be the rectangular areas marked on the playing court limited by the endlines, the extended free-throw lines and the lines which originate at the endlines, their outer edges being 2.45 m from the mid-point of the endlines and terminating at the outer edge of the extended free-throw lines. These lines, excluding the endlines, are part of the restricted area. The inside of the restricted areas must be painted in one colour.
Free-throw rebound places along the restricted areas, reserved for players during free throws, shall be marked as in Diagram 2.
2.4.4. 3-point field goal area
The team’s 3-point field goal area (Diagram 1 and Diagram 3) shall be the entire floor area of the playing court, except for the area near the opponents’ basket, limited by and including:
- The 2 parallel lines extending from and perpendicular to the endline, with the outer edge 0.90 m from the inner edge of the sidelines.
- An arc of radius 6.75 m measured from the point on the floor beneath the exact centre of the opponents’ basket to the outer edge of the arc. The distance of the point on the floor from the inner edge of the mid-point of the endline is 1.575 m. The arc is joined to the parallel lines.
The 3-point line is not part of the 3-point field goal area.
2.4.5. Team bench areas
The team bench areas shall be marked outside the playing court limited by 2 lines as shown in Diagram 1.
There must be 14 seats available in the team bench area for the team bench personnel which consists of the coaches, the assistant coaches, the substitutes, the excluded players and the team followers. Any other persons shall be at least 2 m behind the team bench.
2.4.6. Throw-in lines
The 2 lines of 0.15 m in length shall be marked outside the playing court at the sideline opposite the scorer’s table, with the outer edge of the lines 8.325 m from the inner edge of the nearest endline.
2.4.7. No-charge semi-circle areas
The no-charge semi-circle lines shall be marked on the playing court, limited by:
- A semi-circle with the radius of 1.25 m measured from the point on the floor beneath the exact centre of the basket to the inner edge of the semi-circle. The semi-circle is joined to:
- The 2 parallel lines perpendicular to the endline, the inner edge 1.25 m from the point on the floor beneath the exact centre of the basket, 0.375 m in length and ending 1.20 m from the inner edge of the endline.
The no-charge semi-circle areas are completed by imaginary lines joining the ends of the parallel lines directly below the front edges of the backboards.
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The no-charge semi-circle lines are part of the no-charge semi-circle areas. 0.375
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Position of the scorer’s table and substitution chairs (Diagram 4) 1 = Shot clock operator 2 = Timer |
3 = Commissioner, if present 4 = Scorer 5 = Assistant scorer |
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Playing court |
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Team bench area |
Substitution chairs |
Substitution chairs |
Team bench area |
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Χ |
Χ |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
Χ |
Χ |
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Scorer’s table |
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Art. 3 Equipment The following equipment will be required: • Backstop units, consisting of: ▬ Backboards ▬ Baskets comprising (pressure release) rings and nets ▬ Backboard support structures including padding
• Basketballs • Game clock • Scoreboard • Shot clock • Stopwatch or suitable (visible) device (not the game clock) for timing time-outs • 2 separate, distinctly different and loud signals, one of each for the ▬ shot clock operator, ▬ scorer/timer.
• Scoresheet • Player foul markers • Team foul markers • Alternating possession arrow • Playing floor • Playing court • Adequate lighting
For a more detailed description of basketball equipment, see the Appendix on Basketball Equipment.
RULE THREE – TEAMS Art. 4 Teams 4.1. Definition 4.1.1. A team member is eligible to play when he has been authorised to play for a team according to the regulations, including regulations governing age limits, of the organising body of the competition. 4.1.2. A team member is entitled to play when his name has been entered on the score-sheet before the start of the game and as long as he has neither been disqualified nor committed 5 fouls. 4.1.3. During playing time, a team member is: • A player when he is on the playing court and is entitled to play. • A substitute when he is not on the playing court but he is entitled to play. • An excluded player when he has committed 5 fouls and is no longer entitled to play.
4.1.4. During an interval of play, all team members entitled to play are considered as players. 4.2. Rule 4.2.1. Each team shall consist of: • No more than 12 team members entitled to play, including a captain. • A coach and, if a team wishes, an assistant coach. • A maximum of 5 team followers who may sit on the team bench and have special responsibilities, e.g. manager, doctor, physiotherapist, statistician, interpreter, etc.
4.2.2. During playing time 5 players from each team shall be on the playing court and may be substituted. 4.2.3. A substitute becomes a player and a player becomes a substitute when: • The official beckons the substitute to enter the playing court. • During a time-out or an interval of play, a substitute requests the substitution to the scorer.
4.3. Uniforms 4.3.1. The uniform of the team members shall consist of: • Shirts of the same dominant colour front and back.
All players must tuck their shirts into their playing shorts. ‘All-in-ones’ are permitted. • Shorts of the same dominant colour front and back, but not necessarily of the same colour as the shirts. The shorts must end above the knee. • Socks of the same dominant colour for all players of the team.
4.3.2. Each team member shall wear a shirt numbered on the front and back with plain numbers, of a solid colour contrasting with the colour of the shirt. The numbers shall be clearly visible and: • Those on the back shall be at least 20 cm high.
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Those on the front shall be at least 10 cm high.
- The numbers shall be at least 2 cm wide.
- Teams shall use numbers 0 and 00 and from 1 to 99.
- Players on the same team shall not wear the same number.
- Any advertising or logo shall be at least 5 cm away from the numbers.
4.3.3. Teams must have a minimum of 2 sets of shirts and:
- The first team named in the programme (home team) shall wear light-coloured shirts (preferably white).
- The second team named in the programme (visiting team) shall wear dark-coloured shirts.
- However, if the 2 teams agree, they may interchange the colours of the shirts.
4.4. Other equipment
4.4.1. All equipment used by players must be appropriate for the game. Any equipment that is designed to increase a player’s height or reach or in any other way give an unfair advantage is not permitted.
4.4.2. Players shall not wear equipment (objects) that may cause injury to other players.
- The following are not permitted: ▬ Finger, hand, wrist, elbow or forearm guards, casts or braces made of leather, plastic, pliable (soft) plastic, metal or any other hard substance, even if covered with soft padding.
▬ Objects that could cut or cause abrasions (fingernails must be closely cut).
▬ Headgear, hair accessories and jewellery.
- The following are permitted: ▬ Shoulder, upper arm, thigh or lower leg protective equipment if the material is sufficiently padded.
▬ Compression sleeves of the same dominant colour as the shirts.
▬ Compression stockings of the same dominant colour as the shorts. If for the upper leg it must end above the knee; if for the lower leg it must end below the knee.
▬ Knee braces if they are properly covered.
▬ Protector for an injured nose, even if made of a hard material.
▬ Non-coloured transparent mouth guard.
▬ Spectacles, if they do not pose a danger to other players.
▬ Headbands, maximum 5 cm in width, made of non-abrasive, unicolour cloth, pliable plastic or rubber.
▬ Non-coloured transparent taping of arms, shoulders, legs, etc.
4.4.3. During the game a player may not display any commercial, promotional or charitable name, mark, logo or other identification including, but not limited to, on his body, in his hair or otherwise.
4.4.4. Any other equipment not specifically mentioned in this article must be approved by the FIBA Technical Commission.
Art. 5 Players: Injury
5.1. In the event of injury to a player(s), the officials may stop the game.
5.2. If the ball is live when an injury occurs, the official shall not blow his whistle until the team in control of the ball has shot for a field goal, lost control of the ball, withheld the ball from play or the ball has become dead. If it is necessary to protect an injured player, the officials may stop the game immediately.
5.3. If the injured player cannot continue to play immediately (within approximately 15 seconds) or, if he receives treatment, he must be substituted unless the team is reduced to fewer than 5 players on the playing court.
5.4. Team bench personnel may enter the playing court, only with the permission of an official, to attend to an injured player before he is substituted.
5.5. A doctor may enter the playing court, without the permission of an official if, in the doctor’s judgement, the injured player requires immediate medical treatment.
5.6. During the game, any player who is bleeding or has an open wound must be substituted. He may return to the playing court only after the bleeding has stopped and the affected area or open wound has been completely and securely covered.
5.7. If the injured player or any player who is bleeding or has an open wound recovers during a time-out taken by either team, before the scorer’s signal for the substitu-tion, that player may continue to play.
5.8. Players who have been designated by the coach to start the game or who receive treatment between free throws may be substituted in the event of an injury. In this case, the opponents are also entitled to substitute the same number of players, if they so wish.
Art. 6 Captain: Duties and powers
6.1. The captain (CAP) is a player designated by his coach to represent his team on the playing court. He may communicate in a courteous manner with the officials during the game to obtain information, however, only when the ball becomes dead and the game clock is stopped.
6.2. The captain shall, immediately at the end of the game, inform the referee if his team is protesting against the result of the game and sign the scoresheet in the space marked ‘Captain’s signature in case of protest’.
Art. 7 Coaches: Duties and powers
7.1. At least 20 minutes before the game is scheduled to begin, each coach or his representative shall give the scorer a list with the names and corresponding numbers of the team members who are eligible to play in the game, as well as the name of the captain of the team, the coach and the assistant coach. All team members whose names are entered on the scoresheet are entitled to play, even if they arrive after the beginning of the game.
7.2. At least 10 minutes before the game is scheduled to begin, each coach shall confirm his agreement with the names and corresponding numbers of his team members and the names of the coaches by signing the scoresheet. At the same time, they
shall indicate the 5 players who are to start the game. The coach of team ‘A’ shall be the first to provide this information.
7.3. The team bench personnel are the only persons permitted to sit on the team bench and remain within their team bench area.
7.4. The coach or the assistant coach may go to the scorer’s table during the game to obtain statistical information only when the ball becomes dead and the game clock is stopped.
7.5. Either the coach or the assistant coach, but only one of them at any given time, is permitted to remain standing during the game. They may address the players verbally during the game provided they remain within their team bench area. The assistant coach shall not address the officials.
7.6. If there is an assistant coach his name must be entered on the scoresheet before the beginning of the game (his signature is not necessary). He shall assume all duties and powers of the coach if, for any reason, the coach is unable to continue.
7.7. When the captain leaves the playing court the coach shall inform an official of the number of the player who will act as captain on the playing court.
7.8. The captain shall act as coach if there is no coach, or if the coach is unable to continue and there is no assistant coach entered on the scoresheet (or the latter is unable to continue). If the captain must leave the playing court, he may continue to act as coach. If he must leave following a disqualifying foul, or if he is unable to act as coach because of injury, his substitute as captain may replace him as coach.
7.9. The coach shall designate the free-throw shooter of his team in all cases where the free-throw shooter is not determined by the rules.
RULE FOUR – PLAYING REGULATIONS
Art. 8 Playing time, tied score and extra periods
8.1. The game shall consist of 4 periods of 10 minutes each.
8.2. There shall be an interval of play of 20 minutes before the game is scheduled to begin.
8.3. There shall be intervals of play of 2 minutes between the first and second period (first half), between the third and fourth period (second half) and before each extra period.
8.4. There shall be a half-time interval of play of 15 minutes.
8.5. An interval of play begins:
- 20 minutes before the game is scheduled to begin.
- When the game clock signal sounds for the end of the period.
8.6. An interval of play ends:
- At the beginning of the first period when the ball leaves the hand(s) of the referee on the toss for the jump ball.
- At the beginning of all other periods when the ball is at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in.
8.7. If the score is tied at the end of playing time for the fourth period, the game shall continue with as many extra periods of 5 minutes as is necessary to break the tie.
8.8. If a foul is committed when or just before the game clock signal sounds for the end of playing time, any eventual free throw(s) shall be administered after the end of playing time.
8.9. If an extra period is required as a result of this free throw(s) then all fouls that are committed after the end of playing time shall be considered to have occurred during an interval of play and the free throws shall be administered before the beginning of the extra period.
Art. 9 Beginning and end of a period or the game
9.1. The first period begins when the ball leaves the hand(s) of the referee on the toss for the jump ball.
9.2. All other periods begin when the ball is at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in.
9.3. The game cannot begin if one of the teams is not on the playing court with 5 players ready to play.
9.4. For all games, the first team named in the programme (home team) shall have the team bench and its own basket on the left side of the scorer’s table, facing the playing court.
However, if the 2 teams agree, they may interchange the team benches and/or baskets.
9.5. Before the first and third period, teams are entitled to warm-up in the half of the playing court in which their opponents’ basket is situated.
9.6. Teams shall exchange baskets for the second half.
9.7. In all extra periods the teams shall continue to play towards the same baskets as in the fourth period.
9.8. A period, extra period or game shall end when the game clock signal sounds for the end of the period. When the backboard is equipped with lighting around its perimeter, the lighting takes precedence over the game clock signal sound.
Art. 10 Status of the ball
10.1. The ball can be either live or dead.
10.2. The ball becomes live when:
- During the jump ball, the ball leaves the hand(s) of the referee on the toss.
- During a free throw, the ball is at the disposal of the free-throw shooter.
- During a throw-in, the ball is at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in.
10.3. The ball becomes dead when:
- Any field goal or free throw is made.
- An official blows his whistle while the ball is live.
- It is apparent that the ball will not enter the basket on a free throw which is to be followed by: ▬ Another free throw(s).
▬ A further penalty (free throw(s) and/or possession).
- The game clock signal sounds for the end of the period.
- The shot clock signal sounds while a team is in control of the ball.
- The ball in flight on a shot for a field goal is touched by a player from either team after: ▬ An official blows his whistle.
▬ The game clock signal sounds for the end of the period.
▬ The shot clock signal sounds.
10.4. The ball does not become dead and the goal counts if made when:
- The ball is in flight on a shot for a field goal and: ▬ An official blows his whistle.
▬ The game clock signal sounds for the end of the period.
▬ The shot clock signal sounds.
- The ball is in flight on a free throw and an official blows his whistle for any rule infraction other than by the free-throw shooter.
- A player commits a foul on any opponent while the ball is in the control of the opponent in the act of shooting for a field goal and who finishes his shot with a continuous motion which started before the foul occurred.
This provision does not apply and the goal shall not count if
▬ after an official blows his whistle and an entirely new act of shooting is made.
▬ during the continuous motion of a player in the act of shooting the game clock signal sounds for an end of period or the shot clock signal sounds.
Page 16 of 86 OFFICIAL BASKETBALL RULES 2014 May 2014
Art. 11 Location of a player and an official
11.1. The location of a player is determined by where he is touching the floor.
While he is airborne, he retains the same status he had when he last touched the floor. This includes the boundary line, the centre line, the 3-point line, the free-throw line, the lines delimiting the restricted area and the lines delimiting the no-charge semi-circle area.
11.2. The location of an official is determined in the same manner as that of a player. When the ball touches an official, it is the same as touching the floor at the official’s location.
Art. 12 Jump ball and alternating possession
12.1. Jump ball definition
12.1.1. A jump ball occurs when an official tosses the ball in the centre circle between any 2 opponents at the beginning of the first period.
12.1.2. A held ball occurs when one or more players from opposing teams have one or both hands firmly on the ball so that neither player can gain control without undue roughness.
12.2. Jump ball procedure
12.2.1. Each jumper shall stand with both feet inside the half of the centre circle nearest to his own basket with one foot close to the centre line.
12.2.2. Team-mates may not occupy adjacent positions around the circle if an opponent wishes to occupy one of those positions.
12.2.3. The official shall then toss the ball vertically upwards between the 2 opponents, higher than either of them can reach by jumping.
12.2.4. The ball must be tapped with the hand(s) of at least one of the jumpers after it reaches its highest point.
12.2.5. Neither jumper shall leave his position until the ball has been legally tapped.
12.2.6. Neither jumper may catch the ball or tap it more than twice until it has touched one of the non-jumpers or the floor.
12.2.7. If the ball is not tapped by at least one of the jumpers, the jump ball shall be repeated.
12.2.8. No part of a non-jumper’s body may be on or over the circle line (cylinder) before the ball has been tapped.
An infraction of Art. 12.2.1, 12.2.4, 12.2.5, 12.2.6, and 12.2.8 is a violation.
12.3. Jump ball situations
A jump ball situation occurs when:
- A held ball is called.
- The ball goes out-of-bounds and the officials are in doubt or disagree about which of the opponents last touched the ball.
- A double free-throw violation occurs during an unsuccessful last or only free throw.
- A live ball lodges between the ring and the backboard (except between free throws and after the last or only free throw followed by a throw-in at the centre line extended, opposite the scorer’s table).
- The ball becomes dead when neither team has control of the ball nor is entitled to the ball.
- After the cancellation of equal penalties against both teams, if there are no other foul penalties remaining for administration and neither team had control of the ball nor was entitled to the ball before the first foul or violation.
- All periods other than the first period are to begin.
12.4. Alternating possession definition
12.4.1. Alternating possession is a method of causing the ball to become live with a throw-in rather than a jump ball.
12.4.2. Alternating possession throw-in:
- Begins when the ball is at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in.
- Ends when: ▬ The ball touches or is legally touched by a player on the playing court.
▬ The team taking the throw-in commits a violation.
▬ A live ball lodges between the ring and the backboard during a throw-in.
12.5. Alternating possession procedure
12.5.1. In all jump ball situations teams will alternate possession of the ball for a throw-in at the place nearest to where the jump ball situation occurs.
12.5.2. The team that does not gain control of the live ball on the playing court after the jump ball will be entitled to the first alternating possession.
12.5.3. The team entitled to the next alternating possession at the end of any period shall start the next period with a throw-in at the centre line extended, opposite the scorer’s table, unless there are further free throws and a possession penalty to be administered.
12.5.4. The team entitled to the alternating possession throw-in shall be indicated by the alternating possession arrow in the direction of the opponents’ basket. The direction of the alternating possession arrow will be reversed immediately when the alternating possession throw-in ends.
12.5.5. A violation by a team during its alternating possession throw-in causes that team to lose the alternating possession throw-in. The direction of the alternating possession arrow will be reversed immediately, indicating that the opponents of the violating team will be entitled to the alternating possession throw-in at the next jump ball situation. The game shall then be resumed by awarding the ball to the opponents of the violating team for a throw-in at the place of the original throw-in.
12.5.6. A foul by either team:
- Before the beginning of a period other than the first period, or
- During the alternating possession throw-in,does not cause the team entitled to the throw-in to lose that alternating possession.
Art. 17 Throw-in
17.1. Definition
17.1.1. A throw-in occurs when the ball is passed into the playing court by the out-of-bounds player taking the throw-in.
17.2. Procedure
17.2.1. An official must hand or place the ball at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in. He may also toss or bounce pass the ball provided that:
- The official is no more than 4 m from the player taking the throw-in.
- The player taking the throw-in is at the correct place as designated by the official.
17.2.2. The player shall take the throw-in at the place nearest to the infraction or where the game was stopped by the official, except directly behind the backboard.
17.2.3. In the following situations the subsequent throw-in shall be administered at the centre line extended, opposite the scorer’s table:
- At the beginning of all periods other than the first period.
- Following a free throw(s) resulting from a technical, unsportsmanlike or disqua-lifying foul.
The player taking the throw-in shall have one foot on either side of the centre line extended, opposite the scorer’s table, and shall be entitled to pass the ball to a team-mate at any place on the playing court.
17.2.4. When the game clock shows 2:00 minutes or less in the fourth period and in each extra period, following a time-out taken by the team that is entitled to possession of the ball from its backcourt, the subsequent throw-in shall be administered at the throw-in line opposite the scorer’s table in the team’s frontcourt.
17.2.5. Following a personal foul committed by a player of the team in control of a live ball, or of the team entitled to the ball, the subsequent throw-in shall be administered at the place nearest to the infraction.
17.2.6. Whenever the ball enters the basket, but the field goal or the free throw is not valid, the subsequent throw-in shall be administered at the free-throw line extended.
17.2.7. Following a successful field goal or a successful last or only free throw:
- Any player of the non-scoring team shall take the throw-in at any place behind that team’s endline. This is also applicable after an official hands or places the ball at the disposal of the player taking the throw-in after a time-out or after any interruption of the game following a successful field goal or a successful last or only free throw.
- The player taking the throw-in may move laterally and/or backwards and the ball may be passed between team-mates behind the endline, but the 5 second count starts when the ball is at the disposal of the first player out-of-bounds.
May 2014 OFFICIAL BASKETBALL RULES 2014 Page 21 of 86
17.3. Rule
17.3.1. The player taking the throw-in shall not:
- Take more than 5 seconds to release the ball.
- Step into the playing court while having the ball in his hand(s).
- Cause the ball to touch out-of-bounds, after it has been released on the throw-in.
- Touch the ball on the playing court before it has touched another player.
- Cause the ball to enter the basket directly.
- Move from the designated throw-in place behind the boundary line laterally in one or both directions, exceeding a total distance of 1 m before releasing the ball. He is, however, permitted to move directly backwards from the boundary line as far as circumstances allow.
17.3.2. During the throw-in other player(s) shall not:
- Have any part of their bodies over the boundary line before the ball has been thrown-in across the boundary line.
- Be closer than 1 m to the player taking the throw-in when the throw-in place has less than 2 m distance between the boundary line and any out-of-bounds obstructions.
An infraction of Art. 17.3 is a violation.
17.4. Penalty
The ball is awarded to the opponents for a throw-in at the place of the original throw-in.
Art. 18 Time-out
18.1. Definition
A time-out is an interruption of the game requested by the coach or assistant coach.
18.2. Rule
18.2.1. Each time-out shall last 1 minute.
18.2.2. A time-out may be granted during a time-out opportunity.
18.2.3. A time-out opportunity begins when:
- For both teams, the ball becomes dead, the game clock is stopped and the official has ended his communication with the scorer’s table.
- For both teams, the ball becomes dead following a successful last or only free throw.
- For the non-scoring team, a field goal is scored.
18.2.4. A time-out opportunity ends when the ball is at the disposal of a player for a throw-in or for a first or only free throw.
18.2.5. Each team may be granted:
- 2 time-outs during the first half,
- 3 time-outs during the second half with a maximum of 2 of these time-outs in the last 2 minutes of the second half,
- 1 time-out during each extra period.
Page 22 of 86 OFFICIAL BASKETBALL RULES 2014 May 2014
18.2.6. Unused time-outs may not be carried over to the next half or extra period.
18.2.7. A time-out is charged against the team whose coach first made a request unless the time-out is granted following a field goal scored by the opponents and without an infraction having been called.
18.2.8. A time-out shall not be permitted to the scoring team when the game clock shows 2:00 minutes or less in the fourth period and in each extra period and, following a successful field goal unless an official has interrupted the game.
18.3. Procedure
18.3.1. Only a coach or assistant coach has the right to request a time-out. He shall establish visual contact with the scorer or he shall go to the scorer’s table and ask clearly for a time-out, making the proper conventional sign with his hands.
18.3.2. A time-out request may be cancelled only before the scorer’s signal has sounded for such a request.
18.3.3. The time-out period:
- Begins when the official blows his whistle and gives the time-out signal.
- Ends when the official blows his whistle and beckons the teams back on the playing court.
18.3.4. As soon as a time-out opportunity begins, the scorer shall sound his signal to notify the officials that a request for a time-out has been made.
If a field goal is scored against a team which has requested a time-out, the timer shall immediately stop the game clock and sound his signal.
18.3.5. During the time-out and during an interval of play before the beginning of the second, fourth or each extra period the players may leave the playing court and sit on the team bench and the team bench personnel may enter the playing court provided they remain within the vicinity of their team bench area.
18.3.6. If the request for the time-out is made by either team after the ball is at the disposal of the free-throw shooter for the first or only free throw, the time-out shall be granted if:
- The last or only free throw is successful.
- The last or only free throw is followed by a throw-in at the centre line extended, opposite the scorer’s table.
- A foul is called between free throws. In this case the free throw(s) will be completed and the time-out will be permitted before the new foul penalty is
administered.
- A foul is called before the ball becomes live after the last or only free throw. In this case the time-out will be permitted before the new foul penalty is administered.
- A violation is called before the ball becomes live after the last or only free throw. In this case the time-out will be permitted before the throw-in is administered.
In the event of consecutive sets of free throws and/or possession of the ball resulting from more than 1 foul penalty, each set is to be treated separately.
May 2014 OFFICIAL BASKETBALL RULES 2014 Page 23 of 86
Art. 19 Substitution
19.1. Definition
A substitution is an interruption of the game requested by the substitute to become a player.
19.2. Rule
19.2.1. A team may substitute a player(s) during a substitution opportunity.
19.2.2. A substitution opportunity begins when:
- For both teams, the ball becomes dead, the game clock is stopped and the official has ended his communication with the scorer’s table.
- For both teams, the ball becomes dead following a successful last or only free throw.
- For the non-scoring team, a field goal is scored when the game clock shows 2:00 minutes or less in the fourth period and in each extra period.
19.2.3. A substitution opportunity ends when the ball is at the disposal of a player for a throw-in or a first or only free throw.
19.2.4. A player who has become a substitute and a substitute who has become a player cannot respectively re-enter the game or leave the game until the ball becomes dead again, after a clock-running phase of the game, unless:
- The team is reduced to fewer than 5 players on the playing court.
- The player entitled to the free-throws as the result of the correction of an error is on the team bench after having been legally substituted.
19.2.5. A substitution shall not be permitted to the scoring team when the game clock is stopped following a successful field goal when the game clock shows 2:00 minutes or less in the fourth period and in each extra period unless an official has interrupted the game.
19.3. Procedure
19.3.1. Only a substitute has the right to request a substitution. He (not the coach or the assistant coach) shall go to the scorer’s table and ask clearly for a substitution, making the proper conventional sign with his hands, or sit on the substitution chair. He must be ready to play immediately.
19.3.2. A substitution request may be cancelled only before the scorer’s signal has sounded for such a request.
19.3.3. As soon as a substitution opportunity begins the scorer shall sound his signal to notify the officials that a request for a substitution has been made.
19.3.4. The substitute shall remain outside the boundary line until the official blows his whistle, gives the substitution signal and beckons him to enter the playing court.
19.3.5. The player being substituted is permitted to go directly to his team bench without reporting either to the scorer or the official.
19.3.6. Substitutions shall be completed as quickly as possible. A player who has commit-ted his 5 fouls or has been disqualified must be substituted immediately (within approximately 30 seconds). If, in the judgement of an official, there is a delay of the game, a time-out shall be charged against the offending team. If the team has no time-out remaining a technical foul for delaying the game may be charged against the coach, recorded as ‘B
19.3.7. If a substitution is requested during a time-out or during an interval of play other than the half-time interval, the substitute must report to the scorer before entering the game.
19.3.8. If the free-throw shooter must be substituted because he:
- Is injured.
- Has committed his 5 fouls.
- Has been disqualified.
19.3.7. If a substitution is requested during a time-out or during an interval of play other than the half-time interval, the substitute must report to the scorer before entering the game.
19.3.8. If the free-throw shooter must be substituted because he:
- Is injured.
- Has committed his 5 fouls.
- Has been disqualified.
The free throw(s) must be attempted by his substitute who may not be substituted again until he has played in the next clock-running phase of the game.
19.3.9. If the request for a substitution is made by either team after the ball is at the disposal of the free-throw shooter for the first or only free throw, the substitution shall be granted if:
- The last or only free throw is successful.
- The last or only free throw is followed by a throw-in at the centre line extended, opposite the scorer’s table.
- A foul is called between free throws. In this case the free throw(s) will be completed and the substitution will be permitted before the new foul penalty is administered.
- A foul is called before the ball becomes live after the last or only free throw. In this case the substitution will be permitted before the new foul penalty is administered.
- A violation is called before the ball becomes live after the last or only free throw. In this case the substitution will be permitted before the throw-in is administered.
In the event of consecutive sets of free throws resulting from more than 1 foul penalty, each set is to be treated separately.
Art. 20 Game lost by forfeit
20.1. Rule
A team shall lose the game by forfeit if:
- The team is not present or is unable to field 5 players ready to play 15 minutes after the scheduled time to begin.
- Its actions prevent the game from being played.
- It refuses to play after being instructed to do so by the referee.
20.2. Penalty
20.2.1. The game is awarded to the opponents and the score shall be 20 to 0. Furthermore, the forfeiting team shall receive 0 points in the classification.
20.2.2. For a 2-games (home and away) total points series (aggregate score) and for Play-Offs (best of 3), the team that forfeits in the first, second or third game shall lose the series or Play-Offs by ‘forfeit’. This does not apply for Play-Offs (best of 5).
20.2.3. If in a tournament the team forfeits for the second time, the team shall be disquali-fied from the tournament and the results of all games played by this team shall be nullified.
Art. 21 Game lost by default
21.1. Rule
A team shall lose a game by default if, during the game, the team has fewer than 2 players on the playing court ready to play.
21.2. Penalty
21.2.1. If the team to which the game is awarded is ahead, the score shall stand as at the time when the game was stopped. If the team to which the game is awarded is not ahead, the score shall be recorded as 2 to 0 in its favour. The defaulting team shall receive 1 point in the classification.
21.2.2. For a 2-games (home and away) total point series (aggregate score), the team that defaults in the first or in the second game shall lose the series by ‘default’.
Chess Instructions for Beginners
Introduction
The game of chess is over 1300 years old and is one of the most popular games in the world. It has received more total thought time than many great works of art and literature. Like a great work of art, chess is a paradox on many levels. It’s easy to learn but can take a lifetime to master. There are few games which can match its usefulness as a tool for developing mental abilities, yet it’s downright fun. Intuitor.com has provided these online instructions to assist beginners and help promote the outstanding game of chess.
Chess is a two-person board game which simulates a battle between two opposing armies. The board has sixty-four squares of alternating colors. Each player has a set of sixteen pieces as shown below. One player will have a set of dark or black pieces and the other a light or white set. These symbolize opposing armies.
8 Pawns
2 Bishops
2 Knights
2 Rooks, or Castles
1 Queen
1 King
Moving and capturing: White moves first followed by black. The players continue taking turns using only their own pieces until the game ends. A turn consists of a single act of either moving or capturing. When a piece is moved, it is relocated in the center of a different square. A player can only capture an opponent’s piece, not their own. When a chess piece is captured, it is removed from the board and replaced by the attacking piece. Unlike checkers, multiple captures are not allowed during the same move. Captures are also optional. The exception is when the king is in jeopardy and the only way to save him is to capture a threatening piece.
Board Setup
The playing board is the battlefield of the game. It’s traditionally oriented so that each player has a white square on the corner to his or her right. The pieces are arranged on the board as shown. Note that the queen always is placed on a square of her own color.
figure 1. Chess Board Setup
Description of Pieces
Pawn: The pawn is considered the weakest piece on the board. It moves laterally one square at a time, as shown in figure 2, with one exception. Each pawn can be advanced by two squares the first time it’s moved. Pawns can only move in the forward direction. When they reach the last row, and can be moved no further, they can be promoted to any type of piece on the board except for a king. Generally they are promoted to a queen since this is the most powerful piece on the board. Hence, a player can have more than one queen.
figure 2. Pawn’s Movement and Capture
Pawns capture other pieces diagonally in the forward direction. They are the only pieces which do not capture in the same direction in which they move.
Bishop: The bishop has the strength of about three pawns and moves diagonally (see figure 3). Unlike a pawn it can move backwards or forwards. It can also move more than one square at a time as long as it moves in a straight line. In other words, a bishop can move across the entire board. A bishop cannot jump over pieces and can also never move to a different-colored square. Bishops capture by moving in their normal manner to the square occupied by an opponent’s piece and replacing it.
figure 3. Bishop’s Movement
Knight: Like the bishop, knights have about the same strength as three pawns. Knights are moved in a rather unique manner, one square diagonally and one square laterally (see figure 3). They can move forwards or backwards and are the only pieces which can jump over other pieces (see figure 4). Knights capture by moving in their normal manner to a square occupied by an opponent’s piece and replacing it.
4
figure 4. Knight’s Movement
Rook: The rook, or castle, has the strength of about five pawns. Rooks are moved forwards or sideways in a lateral manner as shown in figure 5. They can move backwards and forwards one or more squares at a time. In a given move a castle can only move in one direction along a straight line. To capture a piece, castles are moved in their normal manner to the occupied square where they replace the captured piece.
figure 5. Rook’s Movement
Queen: The queen is the most powerful piece on the board and is the equivalent of about nine pawns. A queen can move diagonally like a bishop or laterally like a castle (see figure 6). Like the bishop and the castle, a queen cannot turn corners in a single move. It captures in the same manner as either a castle or a bishop.
figure 6. Queen’s Movement
King: A king is only slightly more powerful than a pawn but is nevertheless the most important piece on the board. While the king can move backwards or forwards, either laterally or diagonally just like a queen, it can only do so one square at a time (see figure 7). A king cannot move to a square where it would be in danger of being captured. A king can capture a piece on any square where it can legally move.
figure 7. King’s Movement
Special Moves
Castling: While the rook is the second most powerful piece on the board, it starts the game in a poor position to use its power. Also the king, the most important piece on the board, is located in a position which becomes increasingly vulnerable as the game develops. To overcome these problems castling was invented. It is the only time more than one piece can be moved at a time. In castling the king is moved two squares toward one of his rooks and then the rook is placed on the opposite side of the king. For example, if the king moves two squares to the right, the rook is placed one square to the left of the king. This usually places the king in a safer position behind a wall of pawns. It also places the rook in a more powerful position near the center of the board. A king can castle to either side but can only castle once and cannot jump over pieces in the way.
Castling can only occur under the following conditions:
- It hasn’t been previously done
- There are no pieces in the way
- Neither the rook nor the king have been moved
- None of the squares the king must pass through are guarded by the opponent’s pieces. In other words, if moving the king one square instead of two squares would place the king in check then castling is prohibited.
- The king is not in check.
Castling is a very powerful move and so it’s generally a good idea to castle fairly early in the game. Otherwise an opponent can force the king to move, making castling impossible. Castling early also makes the power of the rooks more useful.
En passant: This is a form of capturing done by a pawn to a pawn and is possibly the least understood rule in chess. Many people play for their entire lives and never use it. Needless to say, if you’re a beginner it’s best to learn this rule after you have played a few games.
En passant was created so that pawns cannot evade capture by an opponent’s pawns by moving two squares on their first move. If this happens, then the opponent’s pawn can capture the pawn moving two squares just as though it had moved only one. An opponent can choose not to exercise the right to capture a piece by en passant. However, the right must be used immediately following the opportunity or it is lost.
Objective for Winning
Check: Threatening a king with capture is treated differently from an ordinary piece. The king is not only royal but the objective of the entire game. A player declares “check” when he moves in a manner which threatens an opponent’s king with capture. However, the term is only used if the king has a means of escape. The opponent must get the king out of check immediately. This can be done in one of three ways: 1) Move the king. 2) Capture the attacking piece. 3) Move a piece so that it blocks the attack. A king cannot castle if it is in check.
Checkmate: The game is won when an opponent’s king is inescapably placed in a position where it would be captured on the next turn. Actually capturing the king and removing it from the board like a common piece would have been unthinkable when chess was invented, and so this is not done. Instead the winner says the word checkmate and the game ends.
Sometimes a king is placed in check several times and never checkmated. Other times a king is placed directly in checkmate. There is no rule saying a king must be placed in check before it is placed in checkmate and there is no limit on the number of times a king can be placed in check.
If a player foolishly exposes his king to check, he is allowed to take the move back. Obviously there is no glory in winning by breaking rules and the rules say one cannot move in a way which exposes one’s king to check. Likewise, if there is a means of escape and a player foolishly doesn’t take it, the move must be replayed. On the other hand, if a player assumes the game is hopelessly lost and resigns, he or she automatically loses even if later analysis indicates that the situation was not hopeless. Resigning a game is risky but is the sign of an experienced player. Resigning is a way to save face by not pointlessly prolonging the game.
The practice of yoga is an art and science dedicated to creating union between body, mind and spirit. Its objective is to assist the practitioner in using the breath and body to foster an awareness of ourselves as individualized beings intimately connected to the unified whole of creation. In short it is about making balance and creating equanimity so as to live in peace, good health and harmony with the greater whole. This art of right living was perfected and practiced in India thousands of years ago and the foundations of yoga philosophy were written down in The Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, approximately 200 AD. This sacred text describes the inner workings of the mind and provides an eight-step blueprint for controlling its restlessness so as to enjoying lasting peace.
The core of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra is an eight-limbed path that forms the structural framework for yoga practice. Upon practicing all eight limbs of the path it becomes self-evident that no one element is elevated over another in a hierarchical order. Each is part of a holistic focus which eventually brings completeness to the individual as they find their connectivity to the divine. Because we are all uniquely individual a person can emphasize one branch and then move on to another as they round out their understanding.
In brief the eight limbs, or steps to yoga, are as follows:
- Yama : Universal morality
- Niyama : Personal observances
- Asanas : Body postures
- Pranayama : Breathing exercises, and control of prana
- Pratyahara : Control of the senses
- Dharana : Concentration and cultivating inner perceptual awareness
- Dhyana : Devotion, Meditation on the Divine
- Samadhi : Union with the Divine
The first two limbs that Patanjali describes are the fundamental ethical precepts called yamas, and the niyamas. These can also be looked at as universal morality and personal observances. Yamas and niyamas are the suggestions given on how we should deal with people around us and our attitude toward ourselves. The attitude we have toward things and people outside ourselves is yama, how we relate to ourselves inwardly is niyama. Both are mostly concerned with how we use our energy in relationship to others and to ourselves.
The yamas are broken down into five “wise characteristics.” Rather than a list of dos and don’ts, “they tell us that our fundamental nature is compassionate, generous, honest and peaceful.” i They are as follows:
- Yamas (Universal Morality)
- Ahimsa – Compassion for all living things
The word ahimsa literally mean not to injure or show cruelty to any creature or any person in any way whatsoever. Ahimsa is, however, more than just lack of violence as adapted in yoga. It means kindness, friendliness, and thoughtful consideration of other people and things. It also has to do with our duties and responsibilities too. Ahimsa implies that in every situation we should adopt a considerate attitude and do no harm. - Satya – Commitment to Truthfulness
Satya means “to speak the truth,” yet it is not always desirable to speak the truth on all occasions, for it could harm someone unnecessarily. We have to consider what we say, how we say it, and in what way it could affect others. If speaking the truth has negative consequences for another, then it is better to say nothing. Satya should never come into conflict with our efforts to behave with ahimsa. This precept is based on the understanding that honest communication and action form the bedrock of any healthy relationship, community, or government, and that deliberate deception, exaggerations, and mistruths harm others. ii - Asteya – Non-stealing
Steya means “to steal”; asteya is the opposite-to take nothing that does not belong to us. This also means that if we are in a situation where someone entrusts something to us or confides in us, we do not take advantage of him or her. Non-stealing includes not only taking what belongs to another without permission, but also using something for a different purpose to that intended, or beyond the time permitted by its owner.iii The practice of asteya implies not taking anything that has not been freely given. This includes fostering a consciousness of how we ask for others’ time for inconsiderate behavior demanding another’s attention when not freely given is, in effect, stealing. - Brahmacharya – Sense control
Brahmacharya is used mostly in the sense of abstinence, particularly in relationship to sexual activity. Brahmacharya suggests that we should form relationships that foster our understanding of the highest truths. Brahmacharya does not necessarily imply celibacy. Rather, it means responsible behavior with respect to our goal of moving toward the truth. Practicing brahmacharya means that we use our sexual energy to regenerate our connection to our spiritual self. It also means that we don’t use this energy in any way that might harm others.iv - Aparigraha – Neutralizing the desire to acquire and hoard wealth
Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary, and not to take advantage of a situation or act greedy. We should only take what we have earned; if we take more, we are exploiting someone else. The yogi feels that the collection or hoarding of things implies a lack of faith in God and in himself to provide for his future.v Aparigraha also implies letting go of our attachments to things and an understanding that impermanence and change are the only constants.
The Yoga Sutra describes what happens when these five behaviors outlined above become part of a person’s daily life. Thus, the yamas are the moral virtues which, if attended to, purify human nature and contribute to health and happiness of society.
- Niyama (Personal Observances)
Niyama means “rules” or “laws.” These are the rules prescribed for personal observance. Like the yamas, the five niyamas are not exercises or actions to be simply studied. They represent far more than an attitude. Compared with the yamas, the niyamas are more intimate and personal. They refer to the attitude we adopt toward ourselves as we create a code for living soulfully
- Sauca – Purity
The first niyama is sauca, meaning purity and cleanliness. Sauca has both an inner and an outer aspect. Outer cleanliness simply means keeping ourselves clean. Inner cleanliness has as much to do with the healthy, free functioning of our bodily organs as with the clarity of our mind. Practicing asanas or pranayama are essential means for attending to this inner sauca. Asanas tones the entire body and removes toxins while pranayama cleanses our lungs, oxygenates our blood and purifies our nerves. “But more important than the physical cleansing of the body is the cleansing of the mind of its disturbing emotions like hatred, passion, anger, lust, greed, delusion and pride.” vi - Santosa – Contentment
Another niyama is santosa, modesty and the feeling of being content with what we have. To be at peace within and content with one’s lifestyle finding contentment even while experiencing life’s difficulties for life becomes a process of growth through all kinds of circumstances. We should accept that there is a purpose for everything – yoga calls it karma – and we cultivate contentment ‘to accept what happens’. It means being happy with what we have rather than being unhappy about what we don’t have. - Tapas – Disciplined use of our energy
Tapas refers to the activity of keeping the body fit or to confront and handle the inner urges without outer show. Literally it means to heat the body and, by so doing, to cleanse it. Behind the notion of tapas lies the idea we can direct our energy to enthusiastically engage life and achieve our ultimate goal of creating union with the Divine. Tapas helps us burn up all the desires that stand in our way of this goal. Another form of tapas is paying attention to what we eat. Attention to body posture, attention to eating habits, attention to breathing patterns – these are all tapas. - Svadhyaya – Self study
The fourth niyama is svadhyaya. Sva means “self’ adhyaya means “inquiry” or “examination”. Any activity that cultivates self-reflective consciousness can be considered svadhyaya. It means to intentionally find self-awareness in all our activities and efforts, even to the point of welcoming and accepting our limitations. It teaches us to be centered and non-reactive to the dualities, to burn out unwanted and self-destructive tendencies. - Isvarapranidhana – Celebration of the Spiritual
Isvarapranidhana means “to lay all your actions at the feet of God.” It is the contemplation on God (Isvara) in order to become attuned to god and god’s will. It is the recognition that the spiritual suffuses everything and through our attention and care we can attune ourselves with our role as part of the Creator. The practice requires that we set aside some time each day to recognize that there is some omnipresent force larger than ourselves that is guiding and directing the course of our lives. vii
III. Asanas (Body postures)
Asana is the practice of physical postures. It is the most commonly known aspect of yoga for those unfamiliar with the other seven limbs of Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. The practice of moving the body into postures has widespread benefits; of these the most underlying are improved health, strength, balance and flexibility. On a deeper level the practice of asana, which means “staying” or “abiding” in Sanskrit, is used as a tool to calm the mind and move into the inner essence of being. The challenge of poses offers the practitioner the opportunity to explore and control all aspects of their emotions, concentration, intent, faith, and unity between the physical and the ethereal body. Indeed, using asanas to challenge and open the physical body acts as a binding agent to bring one in harmony with all the unseen elements of their being, the forces that shape our lives through our responses to the physical world. Asana then becomes a way of exploring our mental attitudes and strengthening our will as we learn to release and move into the state of grace that comes from creating balance between our material world and spiritual experience.
As one practices asana it fosters a quieting of the mind, thus it becomes both a preparation for meditation and a meditation sufficient in and of itself. Releasing to the flow and inner strength that one develops brings about a profound grounding spirituality in the body. The physicality of the yoga postures becomes a vehicle to expand the consciousness that pervades our every aspect of our body. The key to fostering this expansion of awareness and consciousness begins with the control of breath, the fourth limb – Pranayama. Patanjali suggests that the asana and the pranayama practices will bring about the desired state of health; the control of breath and bodily posture will harmonize the flow of energy in the organism, thus creating a fertile field for the evolution of the spirit. “This down-to-earth, flesh-and-bones practice is simply one of the most direct and expedient ways to meet yourself. … This limb of yoga practice reattaches us to our body. In reattaching ourselves to our bodies we reattach ourselves to the responsibility of living a life guided by the undeniable wisdom of our body.”viii To this B.K.S. Iyengar adds: “The needs of the body are the needs of the divine spirit which lives through the body. The yogi does not look heaven-ward to find God for he know that He is within.”ix
- Pranayama (Breath Control)
Pranayama is the measuring, control, and directing of the breath. Pranayama controls the energy (prana) within the organism, in order to restore and maintain health and to promote evolution. When the in-flowing breath is neutralized or joined with the out-flowing breath, then perfect relaxation and balance of body activities are realized. In yoga, we are concerned with balancing the flows of vital forces, then directing them inward to the chakra system and upward to the crown chakra.
Pranayama, or breathing technique, is very important in yoga. It goes hand in hand with the asana or pose. In the Yoga Sutra, the practices of pranayama and asana are considered to be the highest form of purification and self discipline for the mind and the body, respectively. The practices produce the actual physical sensation of heat, called tapas, or the inner fire of purification. It is taught that this heat is part of the process of purifying the nadis, or subtle nerve channels of the body. This allows a more healthful state to be experienced and allows the mind to become more calm.x As the yogi follows the proper rhythmic patterns of slow deep breathing “the patterns strengthen the respiratory system, soothe the nervous system and reduce craving. As desires and cravings diminish, the mind is set free and becomes a fit vehicle for concentration.”xi
- Pratyahara (Control of the Senses)
Pratyahara means drawing back or retreat. The word ahara means “nourishment”; pratyahara translates as “to withdraw oneself from that which nourishes the senses.” In yoga, the term pratyahara implies withdrawal of the senses from attachment to external objects. It can then be seen as the practice of non-attachment to sensorial distractions as we constantly return to the path of self realization and achievement of internal peace. It means our senses stop living off the things that stimulate; the senses no longer depend on these stimulants and are not fed by them any more.
In pratyahara we sever this link between mind and senses, and the senses withdraw. When the senses are no longer tied to external sources, the result is restraint or pratyahara. Now that the vital forces are flowing back to the Source within, one can concentrate without being distracted by externals or the temptation to cognize externals.
Pratyahara occurs almost automatically when we meditate because we are so absorbed in the object of meditation. Precisely because the mind is so focused, the senses follow it; it is not happening the other way around.
No longer functioning in their usual manner, the senses become extraordinarily sharp. Under normal circumstances the senses become our masters rather than being our servants. The senses entice us to develop cravings for all sorts of things. In pratyahara the opposite occurs: when we have to eat we eat, but not because we have a craving for food. In pratyahara we try to put the senses in their proper place, but not cut them out of our actions entirely.
Much of our emotional imbalance are our own creation. A person who is influenced by outside events and sensations can never achieve the inner peace and tranquility. This is because he or she will waste much mental and physical energy in trying to suppress unwanted sensations and to heighten other sensations. This will eventually result in a physical or mental imbalance, and will, in most instances, result in illness.
Patanjali says that the above process is at the root of human unhappiness and uneasiness. When people seek out yoga, hoping to find that inner peace which is so evasive, they find that it was theirs all along. In a sense, yoga is nothing more than a process which enables us to stop and look at the processes of our own minds; only in this way can we understand the nature of happiness and unhappiness, and thus transcend them both.xii
- Dharana (Concentration and cultivating inner perceptual awareness)
Dharana means “immovable concentration of the mind”. The essential idea is to hold the concentration or focus of attention in one direction. “When the body has been tempered by asanas, when the mind has been refined by the fire of pranayama and when the senses have been brought under control by pratyahara, the sadhaka (seeker) reaches the sixth stage, dharana. Here he is concentrated wholly on a single point or on a task in which he is completely engrossed. The mind has to be stilled in order to achieve this state of complete absorption.”xiii
In dharana we create the conditions for the mind to focus its attention in one direction instead of going out in many different directions. Deep contemplation and reflection can create the right conditions, and the focus on this one point that we have chosen becomes more intense. We encourage one particular activity of the mind and, the more intense it becomes, the more the other activities of the mind fall away.
The objective in dharana is to steady the mind by focusing its attention upon some stable entity. The particular object selected has nothing to do with the general purpose, which is to stop the mind from wandering -through memories, dreams, or reflective thought-by deliberately holding it single-mindedly upon some apparently static object. B.K.S. Iyengar states that the objective is to achieve the mental state where the mind, intellect, and ego are “all restrained and all these faculties are offered to the Lord for His use and in His service. Here there is no feeling of ‘I’ and ‘mine’.”xiv
When the mind has become purified by yoga practices, it becomes able to focus efficiently on one subject or point of experience. Now we can unleash the great potential for inner healing.
VII. Dhyana (Devotion , Meditation on the Divine)
Dhyana means worship, or profound and abstract religious meditation. It is perfect contemplation. It involves concentration upon a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. The concept holds that when one focuses their mind in concentration on an object the mind is transformed into the shape of the object. Hence, when one focuses on the divine they become more reflective of it and they know their true nature. “His body, breath, senses, mind, reason and ego are all integrated in the object of his contemplation – the Universal Spirit.”xv
During dhyana, the consciousness is further unified by combining clear insights into distinctions between objects and between the subtle layers of perception. “We learn to differentiate between the mind of the perceiver, the means of perception, and the objects perceived, between words, their meanings, and ideas, and between all the levels of evolution of nature.”xvi
As we fine-tune our concentration and become more aware of the nature of reality we perceive that the world is unreal. “The only reality is the universal self, or God, which is veiled by Maya (the illusory power). As the veils are lifted, the mind becomes clearer. Unhappiness and fear – even the fear of death – vanishes. This state of freedom, or Moksha, is the goal of Yoga. It can be reached by constant enquiry into the nature of things.”xvii Meditation becomes our tool to see things clearly and perceive reality beyond the illusions that cloud our mind.
VIII. Samadhi (Union with the Divine)
The final step in the eight-fold path of Yoga is the attainment of Samadhi. Samadhi means “to bring together, to merge.” In the state of samadhi the body and senses are at rest, as if asleep, yet the faculty of mind and reason are alert, as if awake; one goes beyond consciousness. During samadhi, we realize what it is to be an identity without differences, and how a liberated soul can enjoy pure awareness of this pure identity. The conscious mind drops back into that unconscious oblivion from which it first emerged.
Thus, samadhi refers to union or true Yoga. There is an ending to the separation that is created by the “I” and “mine” of our illusory perceptions of reality. The mind does not distinguish between self and non-self, or between the object contemplated and the process of contemplation. The mind and the intellect have stopped and there is only the experience of consciousness, truth and unutterable joy.
The achievement of samadhi is a difficult task. For this reason the Yoga Sutra suggests the practice of asanas and pranayama as preparation for dharana, because these influence mental activities and create space in the crowded schedule of the mind. Once dharana has occurred, dhyana and samadhi can follow.
These eight steps of yoga indicate a logical pathway that leads to the attainment of physical, ethical, emotional, and psycho-spiritual health. Yoga does not seek to change the individual; rather, it allows the natural state of total health and integration in each of us to become a reality.
ngaphu 
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